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چکیده:
تحقیق حاضر، چهار کتاب متداول آموزش زبان انگلیسی در موسسات زبان انگلیسی ایران ( انگلیش ریزالت، توتال این تحقیق به مطالعه تاثیر استفاده ازترانه برروی صحت و درستی گرامر برای زبان آموزان انگلیسی به عنوان زبان خارجه پرداخته است. این تحقیق سعی دارد، میزان بالا بردن سطح آگاهی زبان آموزان ازطریق گوش دادن به مقدارموثری از ترانه که بر روی صحت و درستی گرامری آنها تاثیر دارد، بسنجد. به منظور پاسخ به این سؤال که آیا تاثیری دارد یا خیر، از 60 زبان آموز در سطح متوسط دبیرستان سما لاهیجان که از میان 130 زبان آموز، ازطریق امتحان تعیین سطح آکسفورد انتخاب شده اند، امتحان گرفته شد. سپس به دو گروه متشکل از 30 شرکت کننده که هر کدام 15دختر و 15 پسرمیباشند، تقسیم گردیدند. شرکت کننده ها در گروه تجربی، آموزش های خاصی بروی آنها صورت گرفت. تا یادگیری نکته های گرامری از طریق گوش دادن به برخی از ترانه ها انجام پذیرد.دراین تحقیق، تمرکزبروی استفاده از ترانه در محیط آموزشی کلاس به این معنی میباشد که فراگیری به صورت ناخوداگاه انجام گردید. از طرف دیگر در گروه شاهد هیچ گونه آموزش خاصی نداشتند و زبان آموزان روش معمول ترم کلاسیشان را که همیشه انجام میدادند، دنبال کردند. دو آزمون استانداردمعتبر گرامر(آزمون قبل از شروع کلاس و آزمون پایانی کلاس) از هر دو گروه گرفته شد و برگه ها با دقت ارزیابی شدند. اطلاعات دریافتی از گروه ها از طریق آزمون زوجی (تی تست) محاسبه گردید.این نتایج نشان میدهد که میانگین دو گروه به طرز قابل توجهی متفاوت می باشد.از طرف دیگر، نتیجه آزمون پایانی کلاس در میان زبان آموزان پسر و دختر در گروه تجربی از طریق یک آزمون زوجی (تی تست) دیگر مورد بررسی قرار گرفت. هرچند که هیچ گونه تفاوت قابل توجهی بین گروه های دختر و پسر مشاهده نشد.
واژگان کلیدی: درستی گرامر، ترانه، جملات پرسشی
Table of Content
Title page
Abstract . . .1
Chapter 1: introduction
1.1. Theoretical Framework . …………4
- Significance of the study . . . 8
1.3. Purpose of the study ….. .8
1.4. Statement of the Problem … …. … .. 10
1.5. Research Questions of the Study . … … . 12
1.6. Hypotheses of the study … .. …..13
1.7. Definition of Key Terms .. ….. .13
1.8. Summary ………….13
Chapter 2: Review of the Literature
2.0 Introduction … … . …. ..15
2.1 Grammar . … ………………………………16
2.1.1. Historical overview of grammar ……… 16
2.1.2. Different attitudes towards Grammar .. .18
2.1.3. Grammar in different points of view … ….19
2.2. Nature of the grammar in Relation to Second Language Acquisition Processes 19
2.2.1. Input .. … .. …20
2.2.2. Intake . . . … .. 20
2.2.3. Acquisition . … .. … .21
2.2.4. Access .. . ..22
2.2.5.output .. . 23
2.3 Grammar Teaching .. ………23
2.3.1. Stages of Grammar Teaching …………………………………………………25
2.4. Principles of Grammar Teaching in relation to different rules and approaches .. 27
2.4.1. Some beliefs about explicit grammar . 29
2.4.2. A move towards the implicit .. 30
2.4.3. Implicit instruction .. . ..30
2.4.3.1. What kind ofknowledge can be learnt implicitly?………………………………30
2.4.3.2. Age and Implicit learning . …31
2.4.3.3. Theories of SLA and Implicit learning ………………………….. 32
2.4.3.4. Implicit learning and instructed …….32
- 4.3.5. Implicit vs. explicit inter-face … . .34
2.4.3.6. The relationship between explicit and implicit… ……………….. .34
2.4.4. Consciousness-Raising in Second Language Learning .. …35
- The interface position … ….36
- The non-interface position . .. ……. 38
- The variability position …….40
2.4.4.1. Consciousness-raising in grammar teaching . . .41
2.4.5. Approaches to teaching Grammar . ..44
2.4.6. Form-based and meaning-based instruction . …45
2.4.6.1. Focus-on-form (FonF) . ..46
2.4.6.1.1. Focus on Form Tasks and Techniques ……..48
2.4.6.2. Focus-on-forms (FonFS) .. ..48
2.4.6.3. Focus on Meaning . …….49
2.4.7. The role of grammar instruction . . …….50
2.4.8. Some gaps in teaching Grammar … …..52
2.5. The use of grammatical terminology ….. ….52
2.5.1. Communicative competence .. …. .53
2.5.2. Grammatical competence . .. . . ..54
2.5.3. Sociolinguistic competence . ….. ..55
2.5.4. Strategic competence . …. …..55
2.6. The role of task-based approach on grammatical accuracy and fluency ..56
2.7. Nature of songs … . .57
2.8. Conceptual framework and characteristics of Song …..57
2.9. The Effects of song on Language Acquisition . .59
2.10. Studies on using song in language classes . .59
2.11. The influence of songs in Foreign Language classes .60
2.12. Advantages of using songs .61
2.13. The positive contributions of songs to language learning ..61
2.13.1. Socio-emotional growth ..61
2.13.2. Physical development ..62
2.13.3Cognitive training ..62
2.13.4. Language learning … 62
2.14. Classification of the song … …..62
2.15. The criteria for selecting songs in language teaching .. … ..63
2.16. Stages of listening to the Song … . ..65
2.16.1. Pre-listening activities .. .. 65
2.16.2. Listening Activities ………… 66
2.16.3. Post-listening activities …. ..66
2.17. Practical tips and tasks for using songs . 67
2.18. Summary .. 69
Chapter 3: Methodology
3.0. Introduction . 70
3.1. Pilot Study … 70
3.2. The Design of the Study . ….. 71
3.3. Participants .. 72
3.4. Instruments and Materials ……. 72
3.4.1. Oxford Placement Test . … 72
3.4.2. Grammar tests …. . .73
3.4.3. Song …. 73
3.4.4. Issues of Reliability and Validity . 73
3.5. Data collection procedure .. ..74
3.6. Methods of Analyzing Data …. … 74
3.7. Summary …….. .75
Chapter four: Results and discussion
4.0. Introduction .. ..76
4.1. pilot study … .. ..77
4.2. Main study … .. .77
4.2.1. Evaluation of overall foreign language proficiency (OPT test for the sampling purpose) . 77
4.2.2. Examining the normality assumption of the parametric tests applied for the research questions .. .. ..79
4.2.3. The first research question: Does using song have any significant effect on lower intermediate EFL learners’ grammar accuracy?…………………………………………………..81
4.2.4. The second research question: Does using song affect female and male EFL learners’ grammar accuracy differently?……………………………………………………………..86
Chapter Five: Discussion
5.0. Introduction ……………………… .88
5.1. Summary and Conclusions . .88
5.2. Pedagogical Implications .. ..90
5.3. Limitations of the Study ..91
5.4. Suggestions for Further Research … .92
5.5. Summary ……………. . 92
Reference .. 93
Appendix 115
List of Tables
Table 4.1 Reliability Statistics … .77
Table 4.2 Statistics for the results of OPT test .. .78
Table 4.3Statistics for the pre-test and post –test scores of the control and experimental groups 79
Table 4.4One-Sample Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test for the pre-test and post-test scores of the control and experimental groups ..80
Table 4.5Group statistics for the control and experimental groups on grammar pre-test .81
Table 4.6Independent Samples Test for the control and experimental groups’ pre-test grammar scores . .82
Table 4.7Group statistics for the control and experimental groups on grammar post-test ..84
Table 4.8Independent Samples Test for the control and experimental groups’ pre-test grammar scores ..84
Table 4.9Group statistics for the male and female groups on grammar post-test . .86
Table 4.10Independent Samples Test for the control and experimental groups’ pre-test grammar scores . .86
List of Figures
Figure 2.1 A Model of Second Language Learning and Use . . …19
Figure 4.1 Experimental and control groups’ scores in grammar accuracy test (pre-test) .. … 83
Figure 4.2 Experimental and control groups’ scores in grammar accuracy test (post-test) .. … 85
Figure 4.3 The comparison between male and female participants’ grammar scores in post-test . . . .87
Abstract
The present study investigated the effect of using song on Iranian EFL learners’ grammar accuracy (WH-question). This study tried to determine the extent to which awareness raising along with efficient amount of listening to song affects the grammar accuracy of Iranian Intermediate learners. To answer this question, 60 Intermediate language learners in Sama high school in Lahidjan who were selected via administration of an OPT exam to 130 language learners. Then, they were divided into two groups of 30 participants each, in which 15 male and 15 female have been put. Participants in the experimental group were instructed on a certain plan to gasp the grammatical point by listening to some songs. In this study the focus was on using song in class environment which means grammatical points can better be extracted unconsciously. In the control group no treatment has been done and learners received a normal routine of the semester as they always did. Two validated standardized tests of grammar (pre-test and post-test)were administered to both groups, the papers were assessed carefully .The data retrieved from both groups was analyzed through calculating a t-test. The results indicated that the means of the two groups were significantly different. In another attempt the post-test result of male and female participants in experimental group have been analyzed via running of another round of a t-test, however, no significant difference has been notified between male and female participants.
Key terms: Grammar accuracy; Song; WH-question
Chapter One
Introduction
1.0. Introduction
Teaching a foreign language is so complex that grammar is the most difficult problems of anyone who wishes to teach it systematically. Teaching grammar has always seen one of the controversial issues in both second and foreign language teaching. As Batstone (1994) states, grammar is a greatly broad and diverse phenomenon which characterizes three interdependent dimensions: form, meaning and use. This perspective on grammar, where forms are shown in direct association with meaning, views grammar as an integral part of the language. Grammar is a device for making and expressing meaning without which, effective communication would not be possible. On Richards and Schmidt (2002) have known grammar as a description of the structure of a language and the way in which linguistic units such as words and phrases are joined together to produce sentences in a language.
There is a variety of grammar teaching techniques that make learning grammar easy to students. Some of the most useful tasks that have been proposed for practicing both grammar and
موضوعات: بدون موضوع
لینک ثابت
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[یکشنبه 1399-09-30] [ 04:46:00 ب.ظ ]
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چکیده
نیاز به تصحیح ایرادهای ساختاری فراگیران زبان درحرفه آموزش امری بدیهی است، اما معلمان اغلب از مقدار ویاحتی چگونگی تصحیح کردن مطمئن نیستند.به رغم اینکه تحقیقات گوناگونی مبنی بر تأثیرگذاری انواع شیوه های گوناگون تصحیح خطاهای دستوری صورت گرفته، عملا پژوهشهای کمی دراین زمینه وجوددارندکه نقش تصحیح خطاهای دستوری را ازطریق عملکرد متوالی فراگیران موردبررسی قرارداده باشند. هدف اصلی این تحقیق این بودکه آیا دو شیوه تصحیح، ضمنی یا رفع اشکال مستقیم، میتواند یادگیری دستور زبان انگلیسی برای فراگیران فارسی زبان در سطح متوسط را افزایش دهد. هدف دیگر تحقیق حاضر این بود که کدامیک از شیوه های تصحیح، ضمنی یا رفع اشکال مستقیم، به پیشرفت دانش دستوری زبان آموزان ایرانی مقطع متوسط کمک می کند. علاوه براین، دوروش رفع اشکال ضمنی، اعلانی وپرسشی، تحت بررسی قرارگرفتند بدین منظور که زبان آموزان ایرانی مقطع متوسط کدامیک از شیوه های رفع اشکال ضمنی را ترجیح می دهند توسط معلم استفاده شود .پنجاه نفر از دانش آموزان پسر زبان انگلسی مقطع متوسط کانون زبان ایران در شعبه یزد در این تحقیق شرکت کردند. آنها به دوگروه رفع اشکال مستقیم و غیرمستقیم تقسیم شدند. قبل ازاینکه فرایند متوالی ارائه بازخورد تصحیحی آغاز شود در ابتدا یک پیش آزمون اجرا شد وسپس در پایان دوره آموزش، یک پس آزمون اجراگردید. روش اجرای آزمون ومحتوای آن برای هردو گروه رفع اشکال مستقیم و غیر مستقیم یکسان بود. تنها تفاوت درانجام تصحیح اشکالات گرامری دانش آموزان درحین آموزش بود. بدین صورت که اشتباهات گروه رفع اشکال مستقیم بصورت آشکارا، اما اشتباهات گروه رفع اشکال ضمنی بطور ضمنی اصلاح شد. نتایج حاصل از این تحقیق نشان داد که اولا هر دو شیوه تصحیح، ضمنی و رفع اشکال مستقیم، به پیشبرد دانش دستوری فراگیران به یک نسبت کمک نموده اند و مقایسه بین عملکرد دستوری دو گروه نشان داد که تفاوت معنی داری بین استفاده از رفع اشکال مستقیم وغیرمستقیم وجودندارد. بررسی درصدهای دوروش رفع اشکال ضمنی، اعلانی وپرسشی، نشان داد که فراگیران رفع اشکال پرسشی را بر اعلانی ترجیح داده اند. یافته های این تحقیق نشان می دهد که استفاده از بازخورد تصحیحی آشکار وضمنی مفیدبوده و فرایند یادگیری قواعد دستوری یک زبان جدیدراآسان تر می کند.
کلمات کلیدی: بازخوردتصحیحی, دانش دستوری, رفع اشکال ضمنی اعلانی, رفع اشکال ضمنی پرسشی, رفع اشکال غیرمستقیم, رفع اشکال مستقیم
Table of Contents
Title Page
Acknowledgements . ….VI
List of Tables X
List of Figures …. …X
Abstract …XI
Chapter One: Introduction
Preliminaries ….2
Statement of Problem ..3
The Significance of the study .. .4
Objectives of the Study .. ..5
Research Questions and Hypotheses .. ..5
Definition of the Key Terms . …6
Chapter Two: Review of the Literature
Introduction 10
Errors and Mistakes . …11
Types of Errors to Be Corrected …12
The Best Time for Error Correction . 19
Teacher-, Peer-, or Self-Correction . .23
Corrective Feedback from Different Viewpoints .. .26
Positive Perspectives on Corrective Feedback . 28
Negative perspectives on Corrective Feedback ….33
Types of Corrective Feedback .. .36
Overt Correction . ..42
Recasts . .49
Declarative and Interrogative Recasts .58
Advantages and Disadvantages of Recasts ..59
Uptake .. ..63
Final Remarks .. ..65
Chapter Three: Method
Introduction .. ..69
Setting and Participants .. 69
Instruments .. …70
Procedures .. 71
Data Analysis . 73
Design .. ..73
Chapter Four: Data Analysis and Results
Introduction .. ..75
Results .. ..75
Chapter Five: Summary, Discussion, and Conclusion
Introduction .. ..84
Summary 84
Discussion .. 86
Conclusion … ..89
Pedagogical Implications .. .90
Limitations of the Study .. …92
Suggestions for Further Research .. 93
References 95
Appendices .118
Appendix A: Test of Grammar 119
Appendix B: Reliability Calculation 122
Appendix C: Consent form .. 125
List of Tables
Title Page
Table 2.1 Twelve Descriptive Studies of Classroom CF in Ascending Order of CF Moves per Hour ….57
Table 4.1 Descriptive Statistics for the Participants’ Homogeneity in the Pre-test..75
Table 4.2 Independent Samples t-test for the Homogeneity of the Recast and Overt Correction Groups .76
Table 4.3 Descriptive Statistics for the Overt Correction Group . .76
Table 4.4 Paired Samples t-test for the Overt Correction Group .. 77
Table 4.5 Descriptive Statistics for the Recast Group …. ..78
Table 4.6 Paired Samples t-test for the Recast Group .. 78
Table 4.7 Group Statistics for the Recast and Overt Correction Groups .. 79
Table 4.8 Independent Samples t-test for the Overt Correction and Recast Groups79
Table 4.9 Percentages of the Responses … 81
Table 4.10 Chi-square Test Results .. 81
List of Figures
Figure 2.1 .. 52
Abstract
The need to make corrections is inherent in the teaching profession, but teachers are often unsure as to how much to correct, or even how to go about it. Although a large body of research examined the effectiveness of certain types of error treatment methods, there has been little research done to investigate the efficacy of different types of corrective feedback on EFL learners’ grammar accuracy through eliciting repeated performances. The main objective of the study was to see if two types of corrective feedback, overt correction and recast, could help Iranian EFL learners’ grammar achievement at the intermediate level. The study was also an attempt to see which of these two types of corrective feedback could lead to a better grammar achievement. In addition, two methods of recast, declarative and interrogative, were under investigation to figure out which method of recast Iranian EFL learners at the intermediate level preferred to be used by instructors. Fifty male EFL students studying at the intermediate level at the Iran Language Institute, Yazd branch, Iran, took part in this study. They were divided into two groups who received corrective feedback through overt correction and recast. A pre-test was administered at the beginning before the consecutive process of corrective feedback provision started, and a post-test was given at the end when the process finished. The procedure of test administration and the content was the same for both overt correction and recast groups. The only difference was in the treatment, in which the errors of the overt correction group were corrected overtly, but the errors of the recast group were corrected implicitly. The results of the study indicated that both overt correction and recast as two types of corrective feedback could help Iranian language learners at the intermediate level develop their grammar knowledge over the instruction. Between-groups comparison revealed that there was no significant difference between the overt correction and recast groups with regard to their grammar performance. Additionally, a survey was conducted to explore the participants’ preferable type of recast, declarative or interrogative. A careful consideration of the percentages of declarative and interrogative recast choices showed a significant preference for interrogative recasts by the group receiving recasts in their class. The findings of this study suggested that both overt correction and recast are equally beneficial and might facilitate the process of grammar acquisition by Iranian EFL learners at the intermediate level.
Keywords: Corrective Feedback, Declarative Recasts, Grammar Knowledge, Interrogative Recasts, Overt Correction, Recasts.
Chapter One
Introduction
Preliminaries
Error correction of both oral and written mistakes occupies a prominent place in English Language Teaching (ELT) literature and continues to be a divisive issue. In the past, the consensus was that errors of any kind were bad. While reading aloud in class, students would have every pronunciation mistake corrected on the spot. In written work, all mistakes would be shown, very seriously put in red ink. Offering an answer in class often risked losing face and sometimes being reprimanded for being lazy if the answer was incorrect. More recently, however, in English language classrooms, there has been a shift in attitude to errors. Errors are regarded as indicators that learners are experimenting with a language, or testing out a new language hypothesis, or progressing in general.
Correction is called for in any ELT class since learners consider correction as a source of improvement (Chaudron, 1988, as cited in Celce-Murcia, 2001), but it is the teacher who determines the most proper time for correction, the best type of it and whether to correct or not. Teachers can exploit the errors that a learner makes to show him the current state of his English and to determine the content of future practice. There are different types of correction (Celce-Murcia, 2001; Brown, 2007): overt/ explicit/ direct (Brown, 2007), implicit/ indirect (Richards & Schmidt, 2002), peer-correction (Paulston & Bruder, 1976), self-correction (Swain, 1985), clarification request, repetition, recast, metalinguistic feedback, elicitation (Brown, 2007). According to Brown (2007, p. 379), “corrective feedback includes responses to learners’ produced utterances which repair or call attention to their errors”.
Although there are different points of view towards error correction and the type of feedback we can give to treat errors, teachers are responsible to provide learners with feedback on even the most persistent of errors, but if they do not, fossilization becomes inevitable.
It is also known that the acquisition of grammar is a gradual process. What teachers teach and what students learn are not always directly linked. So, we cannot put our expectations too high about the complete disappearance of learners’ errors soon after receiving our feedback.
The current study focuses on two correction methods: overt correction (explicit correction) and recasts (reformulation). In addition, two types of recasts (i.e. declarative and interrogative) will be examined. Declarative recasts are the ones based on which the recast is provided with falling intonation as a declarative statement, and interrogative recasts is a recast provided with rising
موضوعات: بدون موضوع
لینک ثابت
CHAPTER I
Background and Purpose
1.1 Introduction
The emergence of internet offers an effective means of opening new horizons for Foreign Language (FL) learning and teaching. Two different dimensions of computer-mediated communication (CMC) which has an important role in educational settings are asynchronous exchange (e.g., emails and discussion boards) and synchronous interaction in real time (e.g., chat rooms and video conferences) give unique learning conditions for FL learners to expand the use of the target language and thus develop their communicative language skills (Abrams, 2003; Blake, 2000). A number of studies have documented the advantages of online technologies (Smith, 2003; Warschauer, 2000), online learning creates a friendly and low-anxiety learning environment that allows “all” rather than “some” students to participate (Kern, 1995; Lee, 2002, Magnan, Farrell, Jan, Lee, Tsai, & Worth, 2003) and make students improve their communicative skills faster than ever before.
Although web-based language learners might choose to limit their online connection times, or they may not have access at all due to the connection problems, computers have a variety of offline software such as e-books and audio books which mostly lack the interactional factors but conquer this problem. They can be used by learners on their computers without any necessity for connection to the internet. In so many developing countries where the internet connections have a very low speed, these offline materials look so invaluable since they can prevent students from wasting their time.
The impact of Computer Mediated Communication (CMC) on FL learning has been approved by so many researches (Kelm, 1992; Ker1995; Ortega, 1997).
Given the characteristics of computer assisted language learning (CALL) as a medium of education, there seems to be
a need to consider learners’ characteristics as an indivisible part of learning. In Ozlem Bayat (2011, p.107) words “EFL learners are responsible for finding settings outside school where the target language is used, for example: the internet, participation in certain activities and using self-access canters”.
Autonomous learners are those who seek the opportunities to learn outside classroom setting and create their own instructional settings freed from the teacher (Breen & Mann, 1997). It is critical for learners to take advantage of as many opportunities as they can to learn and use the target language. Computers as a prominent part of these opportunities can help learners to foster their autonomy but the way in which they can be used is controvertible.
In area of language learning, speaking skills have a privileged status in the language-learning world (Egan, 1999). Both educators and language learners consider speaking a fundamental communicative skill in which development is often expected. However, evidence reveals that foreign language educators regularly experience difficulties in fostering speaking activities due to multiple reasons – some of which are beyond their control. Understanding these difficulties and finding solution for improving students’ speaking thorough using different type of CMC is one of the aims of this study.
Another influential factor in language learning situation is learner autonomy. Autonomy is generally defined as the capacity to take charge of, or responsibility for one’s own learning (Holec, 1981, p. 3). It is both a social and an individual construct, which involves the personal development of each student and, at the same time, interaction with others (La Ganza, 2001). Research findings have provided evidence that autonomy is of general concern in second or foreign language learning (Dafei, 2007; Wenden, 1998; Zhang & Li, 2004). As a result, the trends in language teaching has recently moved toward making learners more autonomous and shifting the responsibility toward the learner (Wenden, 1998).
Considering the above facts, it seems that in spite of the numerous studies which have tried to understand different aspects of CALL, still there are so many aspects which are intact. It seems it is becoming crystal clear for learners and teachers that using computer in educational settings is so advantageous but the novelty of this phenomenon and its complexity has a huge potential for further studies.
1.2 Statement of the Problem and Purpose of the Study
Previous studies have documented a number of benefits that learners have gained by using online technologies (e.g., Chun & Wade, 2003; Darhower, 2002; Lee, 2002, 2004; Sengupta, 2001; Smith, 2003; Warschauer, 2000). Online leaning creates a friendly and low-anxiety learning environment that allows “all” rather than “some” students to participate (e.g., Kern, 1995; Lee, 2002; Magnan, Farrell, Jan, Lee, Tsai, & Worth, 2003) and encourages affective support among peers to increase students’ motivation toward L2 leanrning (Lee, 2003; Weasenforth, Biesenbach-Lucas& Meloni, 2002).
Given the above mentioned factors it should be considered that most studies compared the advantageous or disadvantageous of using or not using CALL. Few studies, if not any, compared
موضوعات: بدون موضوع
لینک ثابت
Abstract
This thesis is an attempt to investigate William Gibson’s Trilogy; Neuromancer (1984), Count Zero (1986), and Mona Lisa Overdrive (1988), in the light of Jean Baudrillard’s critical theories which are categorized under two main headings; “simulation” and “disappearance.” Indeed, this study aims to divulge the specific kinds of ‘simulation’ and ‘disappearance,’ such as ‘the simulation of power’ and ‘the disappearance of the human (body) and the other(‘s body) in Gibson’s Trilogy. Therefore, the researcher elucidates the argument in three main chapters besides the chapters of introduction and conclusion. The second chapter provides a theoretical framework for this study through delineating Baudrillard’s key concepts, such as “hyperreality,” “simulacrum,” “simulation,” “disappearance,” etc. Baudrillard believes that power no longer exists except as “the simulation of power.” He demonstrates “the simulation of power” through expanding on “the hallucination of power,” “the circularization of power/the end of panopticon,” and “the simulation of terror.” With having recourse to these theories, the third chapter seeks to reveal the instances of “the simulation of power” in Gibson’s technological world. The fourth chapter, with an emphasis on the central notion of “disappearance,” attempts to indicate the metamorphosis of the human (body) to the post-human (body) and the recognition of the other(‘s body) which are caused by cyber- technologies, “cyborg” and “cyberspace.” Thus, the main focus of this chapter is to scrutinize the different types of hybrid characters that are continuously merging with ‘cyber- technologies’ and the different kinds of ‘cybertechnologies’ in order to delineate “the disappearance of the human (body) and the other(‘s body)” in light of Baudrillard’s theories in Gibson’s novels. Chapter five presents the findings. As this study concludes, Gibson’ novels depict the technological world in which everything might be simulated/disappeared, or rather redefined through merging with ‘cybertechnologies.’
Keywords: Hyperreality, Simulacrum, Simulation of power, Disappearance of the human (body), Disappearance of the other(‘s body), Jean Baudrillard, William Gibson
List of Abbreviations
C Z Gibson, William. Count Zero. N.p.: Arbor House Pub Co, 1986.
F F Baudrillard, Jean. Forget Foucault. Trans. Nicole Dufresne. Los Angeles: Semiotext(e), 2007.
M L O Gibson, William. Mona Lisa Overdrive. N.p:N.p, [1988].
N Gibson, William. Neuromancer. N.p:N.p, [1984].
S & S Baudrillard, Jean. Simulacra and Simulation. Trans. Sheila Faria Glaser. Michigan: University of Michigan Press, [1994?].
T T O E Baudrillard, Jean. The Transparency of Evil: Essays on Extreme Phenomena. Trans. James Benedict. London and New York: Verso, 1993.
Table of Contents
Dedication .. I
Acknowledgements . II
Abstract .. III
List of Abbreviations …V
1.1 General Background……………………………………………………………………………………….. 1
1.2 Statement of the Problem………………………………………………………………………………… 9
1.3 Objectives and Significance of the Study………………………………………………………. 10
1.3.1 Hypothesis. 10
1.3.2 Significance of the Study. 11
1.3.3 Purpose of the Study. 13
1.3.4 Research Questions. 14
1.4 Review of Literature………………………………………………………………………………………. 15
- 5 Materials and Methodology…………………………………………………………………………… 19
1.5.1 Definition of Key Terms. 19
1.5.2 Motivation and Delimitation. 20
- 6 Organization of the Study……………………………………………………………………………….. 21
Introduction. 23
2.1 Baudrillard’s Trajectory of Thought . … .24
2.2 Simulation . … … 26
2.2.1 Simulation of Power 31
2.3 Disappearance … 36
2.3.1 Disappearance of the Human (Body) 37
2.3.2 Disappearance of the other 42
Conclusion. 46
Introduction. 47
3.1 The Hallucinatory Signs of Power … … …49
3.2 From Panopticism to the End of Panopticism .. 51
. 52
. 60
3.3 Simulation of Terror . … …63.
Conclusion . 65
Introduction. 67
4.1 The Metamorphosis of the Human (Body) to the Post-human (Body). 69
4.1.1 Cyborg (Technologies) 70
4.1.2 Cyberspace (Technologies) 76
4.2 The Recognition of the Other(‘s Body). 86
4.2.1 The Transparency of the Other(’s Body) 86
4.2.2 Simulation of the Other(’s Body) 90
Conclusion. 92
5.1 Summing up. 96
5.2 Findings. 100
5.3 Suggestions for Further Research. 105
Chapter One: Introduction
William Ford Gibson, an American author, was born in 1948 in South Carolina. He was interested in science fictions and used to read the biographies of most American science fiction writers, and also the writings of Allen Ginsberg, Jack Kerouac, and William S. Burroughs, thus, he was influenced by William S. Burroughs. Gibson “was among the first to explore the implication of virtual communities, reality television, nanotechnology, the digital divide, locative art, and ubiquitous computing” (Henthorne 4). His fictions represent a technological society in which the traits of street culture, such as crime, drug addiction, horror, and chaos are highlighted (Cavallaro 5). Indeed, Gibson was among the first authors who wrote cyberpunk fictions. Cyberpunk fictions “can be seen as an expansion of the tradition of science fiction” (Verhulsdonck 14), a genre which narrates new technological modes of being in “an era of blurred ontologies” (Russell 79). Gibson started his literary career by his short stories which were collected in Burning Chrome (1986). His short stories were followed by his Sprawl Trilogy; Neuromancer (1984), Count Zero (1986), and Mona Lisa Overdrive (1988). The following novels are the Bridge Trilogy; Virtual Light (1993), Idoru (1996), All Tomorrow’s Parties (1999), and the Bigend Trilogy; Pattern Recognition (2003), Spook Country (2007), Zero History (2010).
This study is focused on the Sprawl Trilogy; Neuromancer (1984), Count Zero (1986), and Mona Lisa Overdrive (1988). Neuromancer (1984) is a story of a console cowboy/ hacker, Henry Case, whose nervous system was damaged by his employers through Russian “mycotoxin,” so he cannot jack in cyberspace anymore. Case lives in a coffin in Cheap Hotel near Ninsei Street. He usually spends nights in Ninsei Street bars. Wage, Linda Lee (Case’s ex-girlfriend), and Julius Deane are the important characters in this period of Case’s life. After a year, one night when Case goes back to his coffin, a lady, Molly Millions, is waiting there. She was hired to help Case in a dangerous run which Armitage wants Case to do it. Indeed, Armitage wants to control Case through the glasses which were implanted into Molly’s eyes. After Case accepts to do the run, Armitage sends Case to a clinic to undergo a nervous system surgery in order to be able to jack in cyberspace again. Indeed, he feels alive when he is connected to cyberspace (Lloyd 8). And also, some “toxin sacs” are bonded to his arteries to control him.
After the surgery, Case and Molly live and work with each other. Whenever Molly goes to a place for work, Case controls the situation by jacking in cyberspace and connecting to her sensorium. He can see through her eyes and feel her feelings and sensations. Up to the middle of the story, they do not really know whom they are working for. Indeed, they are working for Wintermute, an Artificial Intelligence (AI) that persuades Case to help Wintermute to unite with another AI, Neuromancer, in order to increase their power. Meanwhile, Case searches about AIs, Tessier-Ashpool, and their daughter, Lady 3Jane through jacking in cyberspace and talking to Dixie-Flatline (a memory construct). Then, Molly is sent to Villa Straylight where she meets Lady
موضوعات: بدون موضوع
لینک ثابت
چكیده
هدف اصلی این تحقیق شناسایی راهبردهای مربوط به مهارت شنیداریست كه فراگیران مذكر و مونث زبان انگلیسی در ایران انتخاب میكنندوهمچنین مقایسه این راهبردهابین دو گروه (مذكر و مونث).بنابراین با اجرای آزمون تعیین سطح آكسفورد 76 نفرازدانشجویان زبان انگلیسی با گرایشهای مختلف انتخاب شدند. در مرحله بعد به دو گروه ٣8 نفری تقسیم شدند تا به سوالات پرسشنامه ی راهبردهای شنیداری چنگ (٢٠٠2) با سی سوال كه در مقیاس لیکرت، جهت تعیین راهبردهای انتخابیشان پاسخ دهند. سپس داده های جمع آوری شده در آزمون های آماری شامل آزمون توصیفی و آزمون (Mann Whitney U)اجرا شد. بر اساس یافته ها ی تحقیق، شركت كنندگان از راهبردهای فراشناختی نسبت به راهبردهای شناختی و اجتماعی-عاطفی بیشتر استفاده میكردند. علاوه بر این چون متغیرجنسیت در انتخاب راهبردها موثر بوده،نتیجه تحقیق میتواند برای سیاستگذاران آموزشی، نویسندگان كتابها ی درسی زبان، مدرسان و استادان زبان خارجی در ایران موثر باشد بویژه اینكه فراگیران زبان خارجی براساس جنسیت در كلاسهای درسی جدا از هم مینشینند.
کلید واژه ها: راهبردهای شنیداری، راهبردهای فراشناختی، شناختی و اجتماعی- عاطفی
Table of Contents
Title Page
Abstract ………1
Chapter 1: Introduction
1.0 Introduction 2
1.1 Theoretical Framework ……………3
1.2 Significance of the Study……………………………………………………………………………………7
1.3 Statement of the problem 8
1.4 Research Questions of the Study …………..10
1.5 Hypotheses of the study 10
1.6 Definitions of Key Terms …………11
1.6.1 Learning Strategies .11
1.6.2 Listening strategies .11
1.6.3 Metacognitive Strategies 11
1.6.4 Cognitive strategies 11
1.6.5 Socio-affective Strategies …12
1.6.6 Listening Comprehension . ..12
1.7Summary . ..12
Chapter Two: Review of the Literature
2.0 Introduction . .14
2.1 Language learning and strategies .. …14
2.2 Classification of language learning strategies . 23
2.3 Language learning and listening .. .28
2.3.1. What Is Listening?……………………………………………………………………………..28
2.4 Role of Listening in Second or Foreign Language Acquisition . .31
2.5 Listening Comprehension Strategies ………… ………….. .33
2.5.1 Metacognitive Listening Strategies .. .39
2.5.1.1 Pre-listening Planning Strategies .44
2.5.1.2 While-listening Monitoring Strategies 45
2.5.1.3 Post Listening Evaluating Strategies … 46
2.5.2 Cognitive Strategies .. .46
2.5.2.1 Bottom-up and Top-down Listening Strategies ..49
2.5.3 Socio-affective Strategies .. 52
2.6 Empirical studies in the field of Language Learning Strategies … 54
2.7 Summary .. .58
Chapter Three: Methodology
3.0 Introduction . .59
3.1 Pilot study … ..59
3.2 Design of the study .. 60
3.3 Participants .. .61
3.4 Materials … 61
3.4.1 Oxford Placement Test . . .62
3.4.2 Cheng’s Scale for Listening Strategies … 62
3.5 Procedure .. 63
3.6 Methods of Analyzing Data .65
3.6.1 Ethical consideration . .65
3.7 Summary .. .66
Chapter Four: Results
4.0 Introduction ..68
4.1 Measure of L2 Proficiency … 69
4.2 Questionnaire Data … … 70
4.3 The First Research Question .71
4.4 The Second Research Question 77
4.5 Computing the Effect size 78
4.6 Findings of Interview ….83
4.7 Summary … 86
Chapter Five: Discussion
5.0 Introduction . .87
5.1 General Discussion . ..88
5.1.1 Further Considerations . ..89
5.2 Implications . .90
5.2.1 Implications for teachers .. ..91
5.2.2 Implications for Students .. . 94
5.2.3 Implications for Educational Policy Makers and Curriculum Developer.. 94
5.3 Limitations of the study 95
5.4 Suggestions for Further Research .96
5.5 Summary . ..97
References … ..98
Appendices .. 111
List of Tables
Table Page
4.1 Statistics for the OPT Scores … 69
4.2 Reliability statistics of the questionnaire (pilot study) …….70
4.3 Item statistics for the listening comprehension strategy use questionnaire (metacognitive strategies) … 71
4.4 Descriptive statistics for the listening comprehension strategy use questionnaire (metacognitive strategies) . ..72
4.5 Item statistics for the listening comprehension strategy use questionnaire (cognitive strategies) … 73
4.6 Descriptive statistics for the listening comprehension strategy use questionnaire (cognitive strategies) … 74
4.7 Descriptive statistics for the listening comprehension strategy use questionnaire (socio affective strategies) ..75
4.8 Descriptive statistics for the listening comprehension strategy use questionnaire (socio- affective strategies) … ..75
4.9 Statistics for different categories of the questionnaire 76
4.10 Ranks of female and male participants on listening comprehension strategy use . ..78
4.11 Median value of each group (listening comprehension strategy -use questionnaire) … ..78
4.12 Mann-Whitney U Test for the listening comprehension strategy-use of males and females 78
4.13 Ranks for females and males in metacognitive strategies .. .80
4.14 Ranks for females and males in cognitive strategies … 81
4.15 Ranks for females and males in socio- affective strategies . 82
List of Figures
Table Page
2.1 Diagram of Oxford’s Strategy Classification System .27
4.1 The comparison between males and females in their use of listening comprehension strategies 79
4.2 The comparison between males and females in their use of metacognitive strategies .81
4.3 The comparison between males and females in their use of cognitive strategies …..82
4.4 The comparison between males and females in their use of socio- affective strategies .83
Abstract
The main goal of this investigation was to identify the listening strategies of Iranian male and female foreign (English) language learners and to compare the listening strategies of both groups of research participants. To investigate, 76 undergraduate students of different major of English were selected via administrating the Oxford Placement Test (OPT).Then, they were divided into two groups of 38asked to complete Cheng’ s (2002) 30-item Listening Strategyin the Likert-scale format to identify the listening strategies they use. Then the data gathered were run through statistical tests, including descriptive test and Mann Whitney U-test. Based on the findings of the studythe listeners usedmore metacognitive strategies than cognitive and socio-affective strategies respectively.In addition, as gender influenced selecting the types of strategies for listening, it can be efficient for policy makers, syllabus designers, practitioners and instructors especially in Iran where classrooms are separated according to students’gender.
Key words:Listening Strategies, Metacognitive Strategies, Cognitive Strategies, Socio-affective Strategies
Chapter One
Introduction
موضوعات: بدون موضوع
لینک ثابت
Table of Contents
Acknowledgement ii
Table of Contents. iii
List of Tables. vi
List of Figures. vii
Abstract 1
Chapter 1: Introduction. 2
1.1 Background. 3
1.2 Rational of study. 5
1.3 Objectives of the study. 5
1.4 Research Flowchart 6
Chapter 2: Literature Review.. 8
2.1 PHARMACEUTICAL CAPSULES. 9
2.1.1 Pharmaceutical hard capsules. 10
2.1.2 Manufacture of gelatin capsules. 11
2.1.3 Properties of gelatin capsules. 15
2.1.4 Alternatives to Gelatin. 17
2.2. POLYSACCHARIDES STUDY.. 20
2.2.1 Starch. 20
2.2.1.1 Composition and primary structure of starch. 21
2.2.1.2 Morphology and ultra-structure of starch grains. 24
2.2.1.3 Semi-crystalline structure of starch grains. 27
2.2.1.4 Thermal transitions. 30
2.2.1.5 Starch modification. 35
2.2.1.6 Cassava. 41
2.2.2 Carrageenan. 53
2.2.2.1 Chemical Structure. 53
2.2.2.2 Conformation of κ-carrageenan. 54
2.2.2.3 Gelation of κ-carrageenan. 60
2.2.2.4 Thermoreversibility of gels and rheological properties. 61
2.3 POLYSACCHARIDE MIXTURES. 65
2.3.1 Phase Behavior 65
2.3.2 Thermodynamic Incompatibility. 66
2.3.3 Gels based on mixtures polysaccharides. 68
2.3.3.1 Rheological properties. 69
2.3.3.2 Rheology of blends of starch. 70
Chapter 3: Materials and Methods. 72
3.1 Materials. 73
3.1.1 Gelatin. 73
3.1.2 κ-carrageenan. 73
3.1.3 Acid hydrolyzed hydroxypropylated cassava starch. 73
3.2 Methods. 74
3.2.1 Preparation of solutions. 74
3.2.1.1 Gelatin solutions. 74
3.2.1.2 Starch and κ-carrageenan solutions. 74
3.2.2 Rheological properties. 77
3.2.2.1 Flow properties. 77
3.2.2.2 Viscoelastic properties. 78
Chapter 4: Results and Discussions. 79
4.1 Rheological behavior of gelatin. 80
4.1.1 Gelatin solution at 50 °C.. 80
4.1.2 Sol-gel transitions. 82
4.1.3 Viscoelastic properties of gelatin gels at 20 °C.. 86
4.2 Rheological behavior of starch-κ-carrageenan blends. 90
4.2.1 Rheological behavior at 50 °C.. 90
4.2.1.1 Dually modified cassava starch (HHSS) 90
4.2.1.2 κ-carrageenan. 95
4.2.1.3 Dually modified cassava starch/κ-carrageenan blends. 96
4.2.2 Rheological behavior in sol-gel transitions (from 50 °C to 20 °C) 102
4.2.2.1 Influence of κ-carrageenan content 104
4.2.2.2 Influence of the different extents of starch hydrolysis. 106
4.2.3 Rheological properties of gels at 20 °C.. 107
4.2.3.1 κ-Carrageenan gels. 107
4.2.3.2 Composite gels. 108
Chapter 5: Discussion and Conclusion. 113
5.1 Synergy and gel state. 114
5.1.1 Dually modified cassava starch and κ-carrageenan. 114
5.1.2 Mixtures. 115
5.2 Comparison with gelatin. 120
5.2.1 Solution properties. 120
5.2.2 Jellification. 121
5.3 Conclusion and recommendation for future research. 123
References. 126
List of Tables
Table 2. 1: Properties and applications of modified starches. 35
Table 2. 2: Performance of starch slurry dewatering by a conventional centrifuge from a typical cassava starch factory. 51
Table 3.1: Compositions of the starch- κ-carrageenan solution. 76
Table 4.1: Changes in viscosity of gelatin as a function of concentration. Experiments were performed at 50 °C 81
(G’= G”) during cooling from 50 to 25 °C and heating from 25 to 50 °C. The rate of heating or cooling was 1°C/min. Frequency: 1 rad/s. Strain amplitude: 1%. 86
Table 4.3: Viscosity of κ-carrageenan in different concentrations. 95
) of κ-carrageenan alone and the mixture HHSS12-κ-carrageenan determined from cooling and heating ramps at 1 °C/min and 1 rad/s. 104
Table 4.5: Storage and loss moduli G’ and G” of κ-carrageenan alone and HHSS12-κC0.5 mixture determined from temperature ramps during cooling and heating at 1 °C/min by rheological measurements. Frequency: 1 rad/s. 111
List of Figures
Figure 1.1: Research flowchart 7
Figure 2. 1: Formation of hard gelatin capsules by dip molding. 12
Figure 2. 2: Position fingers dipping during passage through the drying ovens. 13
Figure 2. 3: Steps removing (a) trimming (b), and assembly of capsules ©. 14
Figure 2. 4: Water content at equilibrium of pharmaceutical hard empty gelatin capsules in relationship with the mechanical behavior. The capsules are stored at different relative humidities for two weeks at 20 ° C. 16
Figure 2. 5: Isothermal sorption-desorption capsules hard gelatin and HPMC at equilibrium at 25°C. 19
Figure 2. 6: Test for fragility of the capsules: the percentage of broken capsules according to their water content. a: resistance to pressure with capsules filled with corn starch. b: impact resistance with empty capsules. 19
Figure 2. 7: Structure of amylose. 22
Figure 2. 8: Structure of amylopectin. 23
Figure 2. 9: Grains of different starches observed in scanning electron microscopy SEM (magnification × 280) 24
Figure 2. 10: The different levels of grain starch. 25
Figure 2. 11: Organization of starch grains in “blocklets”. 27
Figure 2. 12: X-ray diffraction diagram for crystalline starch type A, B and C. 28
Figure 2. 13: Crystallinity of potato starch: influence of water content on the resolution of the diffraction pattern of X-rays. 29
Figure 2. 14: Crystalline arrangement of double helices of amylose type A and B.. 30
Figure 2. 15: Variation of classical transitions of the potato starch as a function of water content 33
Figure 2. 16: Hydroxypropylation reaction. 38
Figure 2. 17: Mass balance of cassava starch manufacturing process in a starch factory with a decanter. 47
Figure 2. 18: Mass balance of cassava starch manufacturing process in a starch factory without a decanter. 48
Figure 2. 19: Starch granules trapped in discharged pulp of cassava starch process. 49
). 54
Figure 2. 18: Percentage of order of κ-carrageenan solution by polarimetry (0) and conductivity measurements (D) 55
. 57
Figure 2. 20: Phase diagram of κ-carrageenan representing the variation of transition temperature on cooling and heating according to the total concentration of potassium (Rochas, 1982; Rochas & Rinaudo, 1980). 59
Figure 2. 21: κ -Carrageenan gelation model, cation to promote gelation. (Morris et al., 1980) 60
: melting temperature. Cooling G’ (■), G” (¨). Heating G’ (□), G” (◊). (Fernandes, Gonçalves & Doublier, 1992). 63
Figure 2. 23: Kinetics of evolution of κ-carrageenan at a concentration of 1%. Temperature is 25 ° C. Frequency 1Hz. G’ (■), G” (¨). 64
Figure 2. 24: Phase diagram at 25 °C mixture of waxy hydroxypropyl starch/κ-carrageenan. 67
Figure 3.1: Phase diagram of κ-carrageenan representing the variation of transition temperature on cooling and heating according to the total concentration of potassium.. 75
Figure 4.1: Newtonian behavior of gelatin at 50 °C and 20% concentration. 80
Figure 4.2: Mechanical spectrum of 25% gelatin solution. G’: filled symbols, G”: empty symbols. Experiments were performed at 50 °C, strain amplitude was 1%.. 82
Figure 4.3: Storage and loss moduli G¢, G² for a 25% gelatin sample during a cooling ramp. Temperature was ramped from 50 to 20 °C at 1°C/min. Frequency: 1 rad/s. Strain amplitude: 1%.. 84
Figure 4.4: Storage and loss moduli G¢, G² as a function of temperature during a heating ramp of a 25% gelatin sample. Temperature was ramped from 25 °C to 50 °C at 1 °C/min. Frequency: 1 rad/s. Strain amplitude: 1%.. 85
Figure 4.5: Mechanical spectrum of 25% gelatin. G’: filled symbols, G”: empty symbols. The temperature was 20 °C. Strain amplitude: 1%. 87
Figure 4.6: Changes in modulus G’ and G” as a function of time for a 27% gelatin gel. Measurement temperature was 20 ° C. Frequency: 1 rad / s. Strain amplitude: 1%. 88
Figure 4.7: Changes in G’ as function of gelatin concentration. Data obtained after 6 h of time sweep measurement at 20 °C. Frequency: 1 rad/s. Strain amplitude: 1%. 89
Figure 4.8: Flow curves of hydrolyzed hydroxypropylated cassava starch dispersions at a concentration of 25% (g/g): HHSS6 (●), HHSS12 (■), HHSS18 (o), HHSS24 (). Measurements were performed at 50 °C.. 91
Figure 4.9: Flow curves for dually modified cassava starch (HHSS12) dispersions at a concentration of 25% (g/g). Measurement was performed at 50 °C.. 92
Figure 4.10: Flow curves of dispersions of hydroxypropyl cassava starch HHSS12 at concentrations of 20% (■), 23% (●) and 25% (▲). Temperature was 50°C.. 93
Figure 4.11: Mechanical spectra of different dually modified cassava starches at concentrations of 25%: a) HHSS6, b) HHSS12, c) HHSS18, d) HHSS24. G’: filled symbols, G”: empty symbols. Measurement temperature was 50 °C and strain amplitude was 1%.. 94
Figure 4.12: Newtonian behavior of κ-carrageenan in the concentration range of 0.25% to 1% at 50 °C 96
Figure 4.13: Flow curves of the mixture HHSS12-κC0.5 (¨), 20%HHSS12 and 0.5% κ-carrageenan, κC0, 5 (×), and starch dispersions HHSS12 20% (□), 23% (○) and 25% (Δ). The temperature was 50 °C 97
filled symbols. 98
Figure 4.15: Flow curves of mixtures of 25% starch HHSS12 with κ-carrageenan at different concentrations. Measurements were taken at 50 °C.. 99
Figure 4.16: Flow curves for 0.5% κ-carrageenan and mixtures of 25% dually modified cassava starches/κC0.5. Measurement temperature was 50 °C. 100
Figure 4.17: Mechanical spectrum of κC0.5 (solid lines ■, □), HHSS12 (solid lines ●, ○), and the mixture κC0.5-HHSS12 (■, □). Concentration of HHSS12 alone was 25% and in combination total concentration was 25%. G’: filled symbols, G”: empty symbols. Measurement temperature: 50 ° C. Strain amplitude: 1%.. 101
Figure 4.18: Variation of viscoelastic modulus G’ and G” as a function of temperature for κC0.5 and for the mixture of κC0.5 and HHSS12. a) Cooling from 50 °C to 20 °C. b) Heating from 20 °C to 50 °C. Heating/cooling rate: 1 °C/min. Frequency: 1 rad/s. Strain amplitude: 1%.. 103
Figure 4.19: Variations of modulus G’ and G” as a function of temperature during cooling from 50 °C to 20 °C for 25% HHSS24 alone and in combination with κ-carrageenan. G”: filled symbols; G’: empty symbols. Cooling rate: 1 °C/min. Frequency: 1 rad/s. Strain amplitude: 1%.. 105
Figure 4.20: Variations of modulus G’ and G” as a function of temperature during cooling from 50 °C to 20 °C for 1% κ-carrageenan and 25% starch mixtures. G’: empty symbols; G”: filled symbols. Cooling rate: 1 °C/min. Frequency: 1 rad/s. Strain amplitude: 1%.. 106
Figure 4.21: Variations of modulus G’ and G” as a function of temperature during heating from 20 °C to 60 °C for 1% κ-carrageenan and 25% starch mixtures. G’: empty symbols; G”: filled symbols. Cooling rate: 1 °C/min. Frequency: 1 rad/s. Strain amplitude: 1%.. 107
Figure 4.22: Mechanical spectra of κC1 (■, □), κC0.75 (●, ○) and κC0.5 (▲, Δ). G’: filled symbols, G”: empty symbols. Temperature: 20 ° C. Strain amplitude: 1%. 108
Figure 4. 23: Mechanical spectrum of κC0.5 (●, ○), 25% HHSS12 (dashed line with ▲, Δ) and the mixture of κC0.5-HHSS12 (■, □) at 20°C. G’: filled symbols, G”: empty symbols. Strain amplitude: 0.1% for mixtures and 1% for constituents. 109
Figure 4.24: Mechanical spectrum of mixtures HHSS12-κC1(▲, Δ), HHSS12-κC0.5 (dashed line with ●, ○) and HHSS12-κC0.25 (■, □) at 20 °C. G’: filled symbols, G”: empty symbols. Strain amplitude: 0.1% 110
Abstract
With the goal of finding an alternative to gelatin in the processing of pharmaceutical capsules, the effects of k-carrageenans on dually modified cassava starch were investigated. While film forming and mechanical properties are important in all pharmaceutical capsules, solubility at high solid concentration and thermo-reversibility are important factors for hard capsule processing. Casava starches were modified first by hydrochloric acid (0.14 N for 6, 12, 18, and 24 h at 50 °C) and secondly by propylene oxide (10, 20, and 30% of solid for 24 h at 40°C).
To improve the gel setting property of the dually modified starch, dually modified cassava starches were combined with k-carrageenan (0.25, 0.5, 0.75, and, 1%). The concentration of the K+ ion in the composite mixture was adjusted appropriately to achieve the same sol-gel transition temperature. The rheological properties of the mixtures were measured and compared, with gelatin as the reference material. The solution viscosity, sol-gel transition, and mechanical properties of the films made from the mixtures at 50 °C were comparable to those of gelatin. The viscoelastic moduli (G’ and G”) for the gel mixtures were lower than those of gelatin. The composite gels had temperatures of gelation similar to that of gelatin. Both viscosity in solution and stiffness in gels could be adjusted using high levels of κ-carrageenan and was relatively independent of the molecular weight of the starch. These results illustrate that dually modified cassava starch in combination with k-carrageenan has properties similar to those of gelatin, thus these starches can be used in dip-molding processes, such as those used to make pharmaceutical hard capsules.
Chapter 1: Introduction
1.1 Background
The capsule is one of the formulations of the oldest pharmaceutical in history, known especially from the ancient Egyptians. In Europe, it was not until the nineteenth century that the first gelatin pharmaceutical capsule with the patent of Mr. Dublanc pharmacist and his student Mr. Mothes. Over the years, this invention has been so successful that the production of capsules has grown rapidly in many countries. This has led to many improvements including the invention of hard gelatin capsules in 1846 by Mr. Lehuby (Podczeck & Jones, 2004).
The development of pharmaceutical capsules, used for therapeutic purposes, originates in the keen interest shown by the numerous researches in pharmacology. This has greatly expanded the range of possible formulations using pharmaceutical capsules. Today, pharmaceutical capsules are mainly based on animal gelatin from porcine or bovine. Gelatin is an animal protein that is a traditional ingredient in many fields, including food. Gelation properties at temperatures close to room temperature and formation of homogeneous films, potable, gelatin as a choice for the manufacturing of pharmaceutical capsules.
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ژان ماری گوستاولوکلزیو از جمله رمان نویسان مشهور این قرن است . وی رمان هایی می نویسد که در آنها بیش از پیش دلزدگی خود را از جامعه مدرن بیان می کند.سبک او به نوعی خویشتن داری نزدیک می شود و مضمون ها بسیط تر می شوند.وی همچون قهرمانان داستانهایش پیوسته در سفر است اما هرجا باشد همچون شاهدی بر آدم و آدمیت است.انسان همواره ترس از گذر زمان دارد؛و در برابر آن عکس العمل ای گوناگونی برای دانستن آن از خود بروز می دهد مانند :نوستالژی، دلهره،افسوس و طغیان.این ها عکس العمل هایی هستند که در تمام انواع ادبی مانند رمان،تئاتر و… بیان می شوند.زمان نه تنها در ادبیات استوار است بلکه محوری است که در اطراف آن تصاویری که ازتخیل نویسنده ظاهر شده است ،قرار دارد.نویسنده مانند دیگر انسان ها ترس از زمان دارد اما آنچه که وی را از دیگران متمایز می سازد توانایی وی برای بیان کردن ترسهایش به وسیله ی تصاویر است.ما برای بیان این فرضیه از متد ژیلبر دوران استفاده کرده ایم تا ببینیم آیا نویسنده توانسته بر ترس خود غلبه کند یا خیر. از این رو در فصل اول به این نکته می پردازیم که آیا لوکلزیو نوعی ترس از گذر زمان را بیان کرده است؛و در فصل بعدی خواهیم دید که آیا لوکلزیو توانسته در برابر این گذر زمان پیروز شود یا خیر.از آنجائیکه لوکلزیو از جمله نویسندگانی است که جایزه نوبل را به خود اختصاص داده است و نحوه نگارشی متفاوت و کاملا نو نسبت به جهان پیرامون خود دارد.نگرشی متاثر از دو دنیای متفاوت غرب و آفریقا.در رمان های وی زبان به جای آنکه وسیله ارتباطی میان من و جهان باشد وسیله ی بیان حس هاست و دیگر قیود زمانی و مکانی را نمی توان رعایت کرد .به همین دلیل در رمان هایش می بینیم که زمان گاهی گذشته و گاهی حال است و ظاهرا هیچ دلیلی برای این جابجایی دیده نمی شود جز اینکه آیا لوکلزیو نوعی ترس از گذر زمان را بیان می کند یا می تواند در برابر این گذر زمان پیروز شود.
Introduction
J.M.G Le Clézio est un auteur de l’Afrique. Il fluctuante entre Afrique et Occident. Son histoire personnelle témoigne de l’ambiguïté de sa situation. Il va découvrir, dès l’enfance, l’Afrique et sa colonisation. Son écriture aussi fluctuante entre deux mondes. Le Clézio met en place un texte qui se cache, qui résiste. Pour lui la parole doit susciter des questions pour être efficace, elle ne doit pas être accessible immédiatement. Il ne cherche pas à produire un effet stylistique, mais plutôt à atteindre une vérité de parole. Il condamne le style qu’il considère comme un mensonge. Il vise une langue spontanée, vivante, semblable à un souffle. La parole retenue est un élément essentiel dans la poétique le clézienne. La parole conteuse crée une médiation, elle peut se faire le porte-parole d’une mémoire collective. C’est une parole vivante, le conteur doit conserver et restituer le ton de ce qui est dit. Le Clézio situe ses récits dans des lieux de culture orale comme l’Afrique.
Le désert s’impose comme le lieu de la révélation. Il est celui des origines, il s’impose comme un infini de silences. Son image, omniprésente dans l’œuvre de Le Clézio, symbolise la quête du silence, de l’origine. L’écrivain vise une langue spontanée, vivante, semblable au souffle du vent du désert. Le désert purifie par son silence. La richesse de la langue vient pour lui du métissage, qui seul permet d’entendre tout ce qu’il y a dans les mots. Il cherche à retrouver cette parole vive dans sa propre écriture. Par les langues étrangères, Le Clézio dévoile le secret du langage, son écriture requiert la participation du lecteur qui doit écouter le texte et non plus seulement le lire. Il y a ainsi dans l’écriture le clézienne une forte dimension sociale et idéologique. Le Clézio s’adresse au public occidental, sa fonction de dénonciation revêt alors toute son importance. L’écriture est, pour lui, un de ses seuls moyens d’action, « Je ne suis qu’un écrivain, alors que faire ? J’écris ». L’écriture de l’Afrique est pour lui un mode de dénonciation de l’Occident. Sa mise en scène des cultures orales est à envisager comme un effet de miroir inversé des cultures dominantes de l’écrit. L’écriture des cultures orales est ainsi, pour Le Clézio, le mode d’un retour à l’imaginaire, aux sources de son écriture.
Le Clézio dans ses œuvres essaie de découvrir ce côté inconnu de la vie où il est possible de trouver le salut, où le regard s’affole de tant voir, où l’ouïe perçoit les bruits les plus ténus; où les mots sont inutiles et où les gestes uniquement comptent. Il poursuive une quête, de rechercher un même vrai sens à la vie, une qualité essentielle, celle du regard, un regard libérateur, nu, sans aucun préjugé; un regard que le merveilleux enseigne bien plus que la réalité scientifique.
La conscience du temps est donc présente dans l’œuvre de Le Clézio. Le temps paraissait immense, très lent, avec par instants de drôles d’accélérations incompréhensibles, des vertiges, comme si on traversait le courant d’un fleuve. Le temps apparait pour l’homme, comme une réalité négative en lui-même, pour autant qu’il soit lié au devenir, à la douleur de l’existence et à la mort.
« Depuis toujours, le temps a été source de l’angoisse, parce qu’il est synonyme de la mort. En effet, il ne cesse pas de s’écouler et conduite l’homme vers la fin de son voyage terrestre, passage obligé de la condition humaine. L’homme s’est toujours confronté à la mort. Il faut dire que l’homme est temporel : le temps apparaît comme inséparable de la condition humaine. Il domine la vie de sa présence, il impose ses effets. »1
Le temps va alors exercer une puissance influence sur l’imagination de Le Clézio. Son omniprésence annonce qu’il occupe une place essentielle dans l’œuvre de Le Clézio. Nous voulons préparer une étude des figures du temps chez Le
Clézio.
Dans cette partie, comme l’instrument de recherche, nous voulons présenter la méthode critique de Gilbert Durand. Cependant, il faut signaler que notre travail n’envisage pas une étude totale du système durandien. Elle est une petite introduction à une grande recherche appliquant cette méthode. Notre étude, fondée sur la notion de la critique, n’est qu’un travail élémentaire pour la compréhension d’une pensée.
La base et le principe de la pensée durandienne sont profondément liés aux théories de l’épistémologue et critique Gaston Bachelard.
[1] ABBASSI, Ali, La Peur du Temps chez Hugo, Université SHAHID BEHESHTI, 2004, p. 2.
Le dernier insiste sur le rôle important de la rêverie et de l’imagination dans la création des œuvres littéraires. En effet, Bachelard et Durand ont toujours eu un regard particulier sur l’image. D’après eux, les images poétiques ont un système qui est définit par l’imaginaire. Ce dernier se base sur les images originelles sans lesquelles les manifestations de la vie et des valeurs vitales seraient impossible. Ces images sont celles qui sont inspirées par les matières fondamentales, par les mouvements principaux, comme monter et descendre, et par les quatre éléments fondamentaux : feu, eau, terre, air.
Dans son ouvrage : Les Structures anthropologiques de l’imaginaire. Introduction à l’archétypologie générale, paru pour la première fois en 1960, Gilbert Durand présente sa démarche. L’ouvrage a pour objet de définir le sémantisme primitif des images et d’établir une ” classification des grands symboles de l’imagination “. Il établit que les produits de l’imagination ont une signification intrinsèque, qui détermine notre représentation du monde. Il définit l’imagination comme « la racine de toute pensée. »1
[1] CHELEBOURG, Christian, L’imaginaire littéraire, Des archétypes à la poétique du sujet, Paris, Nathan, 2000, p. 57.
Les réalités géographiques et cosmiques, les structures sociales, la conscience de la fécondité féminine, de la force virile, toutes ces données objectives de la perception se mêlent à nos pulsions profondes pour constituer notre représentation du monde. Entre ces deux dimensions de la réalité, l’une objective, l’autre subjective, l’imagination opère un perpétuel va-et-vient, un échange constant, auquel Gilbert Durand donne le nom de “trajet anthropologique.” Ce trajet définit l’imaginaire :
« Finalement, l’imaginaire n’est rien d’autre que ce trajet dans lequel la représentation de l’objet se laisse assimiler et modeler par les impératifs pulsionnels du sujet, et dans lequel réciproquement, comme l’a magistralement montré Piaget, les représentations subjectives s’expliquent « par les accommodations antérieures du sujet » au milieu objectif.»1
D’après Durand, toutes pensée repose sur des images, qui n’ont rien à voir ni avec la mémoire, ni aves la perception.
1 DURAND, Gilbert, Les Structures anthropologiques de l’imaginaire, Introduction à l’archétypologie générale, Paris, Dunod, 1992, p.38.
En effet, la conception de l’anthropologie de l’imaginaire que Gilbert Durand a construit s’est fait sur cette constatation qu’à l’origine de toute culture, il y a une peur essentielle qui est la peur de la fuite du temps. Ce que Durand appelle le Chronos dévorant, que toutes les productions, pratiquement imaginaires et intellectuelles peuvent relever des réponses à cette fuite du temps.
En réalité, le principe classification de Durand est la bipartition des symboles entre deux grands régimes : “diurne et nocturne”. Ces régimes représentent deux manières de lutter contre le temps et l’angoisse de mort. Fondamentalement antithétique, le régime diurne oppose deux grandes catégories d’images, les unes qui signifient l’angoisse devant le temps, les autres la volonté de vaincre celle-ci et de s’élever au-dessus de la condition humaine. Parmi les premières, on distingue trois types de symboles représentant les visages du temps. D’abord des symboles thériomorphes, des images animales qui signifient soit l’agitation et le changement, soit l’agressivité et la cruauté. Ensuite viennent des symboles nyctomorphes, des images de la nuit qui transposent en terme d’obscurité la craint engendrée par le temps. Il groupe les images de l’impureté, de l’eau noire, mais aussi celle de l’aveuglement. Enfin, des symboles catamorphes, des images de la chute, mais aussi des images du sang, du vertige, de la pesanteur ou de l’écrasement. Ces symboles disent la déchéance de l’homme, chassé du paradis et devenu mortel.
À toutes ces images des temps, valorisés négativement, s’oppose le symbolisme symétrique de la victoire sur le destin et sur la mort. Il constitue le deuxième type d’images du régime diurne. À l’intérieure de celui-ci, Gilbert Durand distingue de nouveau trois catégories de symboles. En premier lieu, des symboles ascensionnels, par lesquels l’homme atteint à une souveraineté céleste, on trouve ici les images de l’élévation, de l’aile, de l’ange, du géant. Puis, des symboles spectaculaires, ils groupent les symboles de la lumière et les organes de la lumière : le soleil, l’œil, le verbe divin. Pour finir, des symboles diaïrétique, symboles de la puissance et de pureté qui se composent des armes et des insignes de la victoire, de l’accession à la transcendance : flèche, glaive, etc.
Les structures mystiques et synthétiques constituent le régime nocturne. Le premier cherche à nier le temps sur le mode de l’antiphrase, et le deuxième à s’en accommoder, à tirer parti de sa nature cyclique.
Dans les structures mystiques les symboles ne font plus vivre le monde en termes de conflit, comme dans l’antithèse, mais visent, au contraire, à réduire ses dangers, à les euphémiser au point de les nier, de les inverser, comme par antiphrase. Ils se répartissent en deux groupes : un groupe d’images de l’inversion et un groupe d’images de l’intimité. Ces structures de mystiques conjuguent une volonté d’union avec le monde et le goût de l’intimité secrète. Elles reçoivent également l’épithète d’antiphrasiques, pour souligner que leur fonctionnement générale est celui de l’antiphrase.
Dans les structures synthétiques ou (dramatiques) les symboles sont tous cycliques, ils sont animés par le désire de maîtriser le temps en utilisant ses rythmes propres. Pour y parvenir, ils s’orientent soit dans le sens de l’eternel retour, soit dans celui du progrès. Les cycles de l’éternel retour comportent une phase négative et une phase positive, la première étant interprétée comme nécessaire à l’avènement de la seconde, ce qui en euphémise la négativité. Dans les symboles progressistes, le dernier cycle « n’est qu’un cycle tronqué ou mieux une phase cyclique ultime emboîtant tous les autres cycles comme figures et ébauches de l’ultime procès. »1 Les symboles cycliques se présentent sous la forme de récits dramatiques, de mythes opérant la synthèse, la réconciliation si l’on préfère, d’images qui s’opposent dans les autres structures de l’imaginaire. Les modèles naturels de ces cycles sont les phrases de la lune et le cycle végétal des saisons.
Puisqu’ un travail constituant tous les deux régimes deviendra trop long pour un mémoire de maîtrise, notre travail se contente d’étudier les images du régime diurne de l’imaginaire.
[1] Ibid., p. 322.
Temps est un thème fréquent chez Le Clézio, Pour étudier ce concept chez Le Clézio, nous essaierons de voir, d’une part, si il prouve une certaine peur face à la fuite du temps ? Si oui, pourquoi ? D’une autre part, est- ce qu’il pourrait maîtriser la fuite du temps ? Si oui, comment ?
En tant que corpus, face à une immense production littéraire, il est à signaler que nous avons étudié une petite partie de l’œuvre romanesque de Le Clézio pour analyser des figures de l’imaginaire. Nous avons travaillé sur les ouvrages : La Ritournelle de la faim, Désert et L’Africain.
Ce travail comprend deux parties. Dans la première partie nous allons étudier les images négatives du régime diurne regroupées autour des symboles thériomorphes, nyctomorphes et enfin catamorphes. Et dans la partie suivante, nous allons voir si Le Clézio pourrait enfin montrer une victoire face à l’écoulement du temps. La réponse à cette question sera une analyse des images positives du régime diurne regroupées autour des symboles ascensionnels, spectaculaires et enfin les symboles de protection contre le temps.
I. LA FUITE DU TEMPS
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